On the Jewish Principle of Agency

Introduction

In the Hebrew Scriptures and the writings that they inspire, there is a plethora of figures of speech and cultural paradigms that, in most cases, are lost on the average Western reader. This is the very reason why, for every biblical topic, there’s always more than one viewpoint or interpretation. In my view, most of these exegetical differences stem from the intellectual departure of Christianity from the Jewish roots from which it came. It is paramount to note that while the Bible is certainly written for us, it is not written to us. There is an entire culture and society that is, in most instances, presupposed to have been understood by those reading the words of the Biblical authors. Trying to comprehend millennia-old documents with little to no knowledge of their historical context is a bit like a Muggle trying to understand the Harry Potter magical universe. An adequate understanding of the historical setting is necessary for both. With the hermeneutic principle of reading Scripture in its cultural context, I believe many things that were once obscured can become plain. 

In this article, I aim to investigate the Jewish concept of agency to determine its role within Scripture and to explore the potential theological implications it may have for mainstream Christian beliefs when applied to interpretation.¹ (Henceforth, I will use the title “HaShem,” literally meaning “the name,” in place of the divine name “Y/H/W/H” in accordance with rabbinic tradition and out of reverence for God—not uttering his name casually).

What is Agency?

In Biblical culture, the Jewish principle of agency is the concept whereby someone is sent with authority to complete a mission on behalf of their sender. The paradigm can be summarized into six key tenets:

1. The first tenet is the foundation of the five that follow. An agent fully represents their sender, being invested with their authority, status, privileges, and prerogatives. This idea is summarized best in the Talmudic maxim, “a person's agent is regarded as the person himself.”² This axiom is carried out to its fullest logical consequences, in that whatever the principal can do, the agent can do as well.³ This is true even to the extent that “an act committed by a duly appointed agent is regarded as having been committed by the principal.”⁴ In ancient times, an individual sage would often send one of their disciples as an agent to fulfill a mission. The ordination of a disciple was typically done through smicha (the laying on of hands), after which they could function as agents of their Rabbi who sent them. Rabbi Chiya bar Abba once sent an agent to Rabbi Yehudah with a letter that read, “Behold, we send you a great man as our agent (Heb. shaliach), equal to ourselves until he returns to us.”⁵

2. The second tenet highlights that the sender is greater than the agent whom they send. Under this principle, the agent is a subordinate figure who, although appointed to a position equal to their sender for the sake of representation, remains inferior in rank. “The sender is greater than the one who is sent” (Bereshit Rabbah 78:1).

3. The third tenet logically follows the second, emphasizing the submissive relationship shared between the agent and the principal. The sender wields authority over their agent, and in order to fulfill the task at hand, the agent must work in harmony with the will of their sender. 

   
   

4. The fourth tenet entails that the agent serves as a legal partner of the principal. A person could appoint an agent for several statutory reasons, such as to betroth a maiden for himself, in which the agent would stand in his sender's place for the betrothal ceremony, or to deliver a certificate of divorce to his wife.⁶ The Sanhedrin (the supreme court of Israel) likewise appointed agents to carry out legal orders or declare judicial decisions. They would send agents to the Jewish communities of the diaspora to announce the sighting of the new moon (which marked the start of a new month), establish the calendar, and maintain fellowship with the scattered members of the Jewish faith. Similarly, the court of Israel could commission agents to perform a commandment on behalf of the nation, such as harvesting the first sheaf of barley for the first-fruit offering.⁷ Agents sent by the Sanhedrin could even set aside certain prohibitions to fulfill their task, such as breaking Shabbat or disregarding the mitzva of dwelling in a sukkah during Sukkot. 

“However, one who sets out for a matter of mitzva, it is permitted for him to set out any day that he wishes. Why? It is because he set out for a matter of mitzva; one who sets out for a matter of mitzva overrides Shabbat. Likewise you find regarding sukka that we learned that those who set out for a matter of mitzva are exempt from the sukka, as you have nothing as dear before the Holy One blessed be He as one who is dispatched to set out for a matter of mitzva, and devotes himself in order to succeed on his mission.” (Numbers Rabbah 16:1)

5. The fifth tenet mandates that the agent must return to their sender upon completion of their mission. For instance, if a king sent an envoy to relay a message, he would only truly consider the assignment complete when his agent returned to him to deliberate on how the message was received. Recall the story of Rabbi Chiya bar Abba’s agent who was expected to return to his principal after delivering a message to Rabbi Yehudah. In an instance when God commissions a human agent, they return to their sender at death when "the spirit returns to God who gave it" (Ecclesiastes 12:7).

6. The sixth and final tenet teaches that “an agent can appoint another agent” (b.Kiddushin 41a:10). For purposes such as furthering their mission or aiding in the task at hand, a commissioned agent may appoint his or her own “sub-agents.”⁸ A sub-agent possesses the same prerogatives and obligations as their principal (who is an agent themselves), and the two collectively are subordinate and take orders from the chief principal, who ranks highest in this chain of commission. 

With an adequate grasp of the framework comprising the Jewish principle of agency, we can now proceed with our investigation by discerning its presence within the Biblical text. 

Agency in the Old Testament

In Hebrew, the word for “agent” is shaliach, meaning “sent one,” from the root word shalach, meaning “to send.”⁹ There are countless examples of this principle, as summarized by its six tenets being exemplified in the OT (Tanakh), as the subsequent section of this article will demonstrate. 

The Angels, the Agents of HaShem

God’s angels frequently serve as agents who are charged with many duties, such as completing a task, delivering a message, or protecting humanity on behalf of HaShem.¹⁰ Endless Biblical examples can be cited.¹¹ As agents, angels possess a highly qualified status, being that they represent God; however, they remain subordinate to him, as they do not possess authority on their own. “[An angel] is only a messenger, and a messenger can only do what he is sent to do.”¹²

According to Rambam in his work Mishneh Torah, there are ten classifications of angels: class one being the greatest, and class ten being the lowest:

“The different names with which the angels are called reflect their [spiritual] levels. Thus, they are called: 1) The holy chayyot (living creatures), who are above all the others; 2) the ofanim (wheels); 3) the er'elim (valiant ones); 4) the chashmalim (radiant electrum-like beings); 5) the serafim (burning ones); 6) the mal'achim (messengers); 7) the elohim (divine beings); 8) the sons of the elohim (sons of God); 9) the keruvim (cherubim); 10) the ishim (human-like beings). These ten names which are used to refer to the angels reflect their ten [different spiritual] levels. The level above which there is no higher level except that of God, blessed be He, is that of the form called chayyot. Therefore, the prophets state that they are below God's throne of glory. The tenth [and lowest] level is that of the form called ishim. They are the angels who communicate with the prophets and are perceived by them in prophetic visions. Therefore, they are called ishim, (“men”), because their level is close to the level of human knowledge. All these [spiritual] forms are alive. They recognize and know the Creator with very immense knowledge, each of the forms according to its level and not according to its greatness. Even the highest level is unable to conceive of the true nature of the Creator as He [truly] is, since its intellectual capacity is too limited to know or to grasp [Him]. It does, however, comprehend and know more than the form which is below it. This is true regarding each and every level, including the tenth level. This [level] also knows the Creator in a manner that surpasses the potential to know and comprehend [God possessed by] human beings made up of body and soul. None [of these levels] can know the Creator as He knows Himself.”¹³

Ish’im (human-like angels) appeared to Abraham (Gen 18:1-15; 19:1-5; 22:11-18), Hagar (Gen 16:7-14; 21:17-19), Moses (Exod 3:2-6), Balaam (Num 22:22-35), Gideon (Judg 6:11-24), and Elijah (1 Kgs 19:5-7). A Cherub was said to have been charged with protecting the garden of Eden (Gen 3:24), and God himself is said to dwell between the Cherubim (1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 2 Kings 19:15; Isa 37:16). The sons of the Elohim are mentioned in the book of Job (Job 1:1, 6). The captain of the Lord’s host, a very high-ranking angel usually identified as Michael,¹⁴ appeared to Joshua (Joshua 5:13-15). Isaiah encountered the Seraphim (Isaiah 6:2-6). Ezekiel encountered both the Chayot (Living Creatures, Eze 1:4-6; 10:20) and Ofanim (Wheels, Eze 1:15-18). The angels Gabriel (Dan 9:20-27) and Michael appeared to Daniel (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1). Gabriel, Michael, Uriel, and Raphael are considered the chiefs amongst the angels, often referred to as "arch-angels." They are HaShem's most trusted messengers and occupy a special role in his heavenly host.

"Michael, the greatest of the three, was in the middle, Gabriel was to his right, and Raphael was to his left." (b.Yoma 37a:10)

"Four classes of ministering angels minister and utter praise before the Holy One, blessed be He: the first camp (led by) Michael on His right, the second camp (led by) Gabriel on His left, the third camp || (led by) Uriel before Him, and the fourth camp (led by) Raphael behind Him; and the Shekhinah of the Holy One, blessed be He, is in the centre." (Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer 4:3)

Angels are frequently depicted as “sent ones” (shlichim, agents) of the LORD,¹⁵ at times even speaking as the LORD himself, insofar as they fully represent him.¹⁶ Consider the following passages from Genesis 31, Exodus 3, and Judges 6. 

“Then the angel of God said to me in the dream, ‘Jacob,’ and I said, ‘Here I am!’ And he said, ‘Look up and see that all the goats that leap on the flock are striped, speckled, and mottled, for I have seen all that Laban is doing to you. I am the God of Bethel, where you anointed a pillar and made a vow to me. Now leave this land at once and return to the land of your birth.’ ”” (‭‭Gen ‭31‬:‭11‬-‭13‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬)

“2 There the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush; he looked, and the bush was blazing, yet it was not consumed. 3 Then Moses said, ‘I must turn aside and look at this great sight and see why the bush is not burned up.’ 4 When the Lord saw that he had turned aside to see, God called to him out of the bush, ‘Moses, Moses!’ And he said, ‘Here I am.’ 5 Then he said, ‘Come no closer! Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground.’ 6 He said further, ‘I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.’ And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God” (Exodus 3:2–6 NRSVUE)

“11 The angel of the LORD came and sat under the oak at Ophrah that belonged to Joash the Abiezrite, as his son Gideon was beating out wheat in the wine press, to hide it from the Midianites. 12 The angel of the LORD appeared to him and said to him, ‘The LORD is with you, you mighty warrior.’ 13 Gideon answered him, ‘But sir, if the LORD is with us, why then has all this happened to us? And where are all his wonderful deeds that our ancestors recounted to us, saying, “Did not the LORD bring us up from Egypt?” But now the LORD has cast us off, and given us into the hand of Midian.’ 14 Then the LORD (HaShem) turned to him and said, ‘Go in this might of yours and deliver Israel from the hand of Midian; I hereby commission you.’” (Judges 6:11-14 NRSVUE)

These narratives seemingly conflate the angel of the LORD and HaShem into a single self. With context, however, we see that this isn’t really the case. By lexical definition, a messenger is distinct from the one sending the message. Just as the agent is distinct from the principal, yet speaks in their name and under their authority. The Jewish law of agency allows a person (such as God) to invest their name into appointed agents, granting them their titles, names, and prerogatives. These angelic representatives were given the name of the LORD (HaShem), and thus speak as if they were the LORD himself. As Rabbi Simeon, the son of Lakish, states: “The name of the Holy One, blessed be He, is coupled with every angel.”¹⁷ Consider the angel mentioned in Exodus 23:20-21, of whom God says his name is in.

“20 “I am going to send an angel in front of you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place that I have prepared. 21 Be attentive to him and listen to his voice; do not rebel against him, for he will not pardon your transgression, for my name is in him.” (Exodus 23:20-21)

This is further illustrated in the famous story where Jacob wrestles with God. In Genesis 32, Jacob wrestles with a man until daybreak (verse 24), yet later the text says that  Jacob “struggled with God and with men” (verse 28), and he himself says he has “seen God face to face” (verse 30). One would (rightfully so) walk away from this text thinking Jacob truly encountered the LORD himself. Yet the prophet Hosea, commenting on this legend, states that Jacob wrestled with an angel (Hos 12:3-4). The one called “God” in Genesis 32 was an angel bearing the name of HaShem, serving as his representative.

In Genesis chapters 18-19, we read the story about the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah due to their rampant, unrepentant sin. In chapter 19 specifically, the two angels who were sent to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah say:¹⁸

“12 Then the two men said to Lot, “Whom else have you here? A son-in-law, and your sons, and your daughters, and whomever you have in the city, bring them out of the place; 13 for we are about to destroy this place, because their outcry has become so great before the Lord that the Lord has sent us to destroy it.” 14 Lot went out and spoke to his sons-in-law, who were to marry his daughters, and said, “Up, get out of this place, for the Lord will destroy the city.” But he appeared to his sons-in-law to be jesting.” (Genesis 19:12-14 NASB)

“23 The sun had risen over the earth when Lot came to Zoar. 24 Then the Lord rained on Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven, 25 and He overthrew those cities, and all the valley, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and what grew on the ground.” (Genesis 19:23-25)

A plain reading of this passage clearly relays the idea that God commissioned these two angels to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah on his behalf. They themselves say, “the Lord has sent us (root: shalach) to destroy it.” Yet, they also say, “the Lord (HaShem) will destroy the city.” How can both be true? Agency. Rashi adds that each of the two angels was sent to complete a specific task—one to destroy Sodom, and the other to rescue Lot.¹⁹

When actually destroying the city, it says, “the Lord (HaShem) rained on Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord (HaShem) out of heaven.” This verse has often been interpreted by Trinitarian theologians as supporting the doctrine of a multi-personal God (sincesince two selves are called “the LORD” using the divine name “Y/H/W/H”). However, within the framework of agency, the verse has a far simpler implication. Two angels were given HaShem’s complete authority to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah; thus, it is as if HaShem himself did it.²⁰ Both acted in and bore his name. Presumably, one angel remained on the ground and called down fire and brimstone from the other angel (or potentially God himself) above.²¹

As mentioned earlier, the  “Seraphim” are a very specific class of angelic beings, one of which was seen in Isaiah’s temple vision in chapter six.

“6 Then one of the seraphs flew to me, holding a live coal that had been taken from the altar with a pair of tongs. 7 The seraph touched my mouth with it and said, “Now that this has touched your lips, your guilt has departed and your sin is blotted out.” (Isaiah 6:6-7)

This encounter is particularly noteworthy, as the seraphic angel provided atonement for Isaiah and blotted out his sin. The prerogative of forgiving sins belongs to HaShem (Isa 33:22-24); thus, it is logical to conclude that the seraph was acting as an agent of HaShem, providing absolution. 

Another relevant point is that the angels of God are referred to as “god” (the Hebrew noun elohim).²² This further demonstrates the facet of agency whereby the shaliach carries the sender's names and titles. The angels can be referred to as “gods” because they represent the one true God. 

For a closing thought on angelic agents, I would like to expound more on the figure known as “the Angel of the LORD” (malach HaShem) that appears throughout the Bible. This character in Scripture has attracted significant interest in both Christian and Jewish thought due to his being a distinctly authorized angel. He speaks as if he is HaShem himself (as noted above), he is depicted as having a unique relationship with God (e.g., Zechariah 3:1-10), and he accepts sacrifices on behalf of God (Judges 6:21; 13:15-23). In Biblical Hebrew, when two nouns are joined together, and the second noun is an absolute proper noun (such as the name of a person), the entire chain becomes definite. This is called a construct chain (maqqef). In the case of the term malach HaShem, “HaShem” is an absolute proper noun (the name of a specific person, God); thus, the chain becomes definite. I.e., “the Angel of the LORD.” However, it must be noted that the chain is only definite because the final noun is proper. Therefore, it is not necessarily the case that the preceding noun has the same sense of absolutivity despite being a definite construct chain.²³ What this means is that while “the Angel of the LORD” is a grammatically correct rendering of the definite chain malach HaShem, this does not mean that every time this term appears, it is in reference to the same angel. Whether it is or is not picking out a sole/unique angel every time is up to the interpretation of the reader. 

Christianity, by and large, has held the belief that “the angel of the LORD” refers to a manifestation of the pre-incarnate Christ as God’s messenger.²⁴ This idea appears to have begun with St. Justin Martyr (c. 100–165 CE), who believed that the one true God, the Father, was too transcendent to interact directly with the material world.²⁵ Thus, he had to do so by the agency of his Logos, “the angel of the LORD.”²⁶ Because of this, the “god” and “lord” that was seen by Abraham and Moses was not the one true God whom no man can see, but rather the second and lesser god, his Son.²⁷ Likewise, certain schools of thought within Judaism hold this angel in higher regard, believing that many of the angel of the LORD’s appearances in the OT are referring to Metatron (Memtet), a high-ranking angel of God.²⁸

On the other hand, many in both Christianity and Judaism view the term malach HaShem as a status that any one of God’s thousands of angels (Dan 7:10) can assume should God see fit. Any angel sent by God as an agent to relay a message or complete a task can be described as “the angel of the LORD.”²⁹ Though such agents bear his name and speak on his behalf, they remain distinct from and subordinate to him.³⁰

This interpretation makes more sense not only according to Scripture, but also according to the Hebrew syntax. There is a grammatical way to unambiguously specify that a specific angel is being designated, and that is by inserting a redundant “he (ה),” the Hebrew definite article: ha’malach HaShem. Because the construct chain is already definite, adding a redundant definite article before the former noun explicitly denotes that a very specific angel is being spoken of.³¹  In English, one could render the phrase with a redundant article as “that angel of the LORD.” However, that is not what appears in Scripture. 

The Prophets, Agents of HaShem

Similar to God’s angels, God’s prophets are also said to be agents of God.³² James F. McGrath notes:

“Agency was an important part of everyday life in the ancient world.  Individuals such as prophets and angels mentioned in the Jewish Scriptures were thought of as ‘agents’ of God.  And the key idea regarding agency in the ancient world appears to be summarized in the phrase from rabbinic literature so often quoted in these contexts: ‘The one sent is like the one who sent him.’”³³

On many occasions, the prophets are said to be “sent” (shalach) by the LORD.³⁴ In the Midrash Rabbah, Moses and Aaron plainly state, “We are the agents of the Holy One, blessed be He.”³⁵ The rabbis also explicitly referred to the prophets as agents because they performed actions that are normally associated with God alone. Moses had control over nature and the elements (such as parting the Red Sea).³⁶ Elijah called down fire from heaven and raised the dead.³⁷ Elisha performed miracles of healing, raised the dead, and demonstrated enhanced knowledge.³⁸ Joshua halted the sun and moon in the sky.³⁹ Isaiah caused a shadow to move backwards.⁴⁰ However, as with any agent, their highly qualified status is one of appointment. They remain subordinate to God, their sender. 

Throughout the Torah, Moses’ role as an agent of God is worthy of attention.⁴¹ Moses says God sent (root shalach) him.⁴² While Scripture in some places states that Moses delivered Israel out of Egypt, others say that it was God himself who did so. 

“10 So come, I will send you to Pharaoh to bring my people, the Israelites, out of Egypt” (Exodus 3:10 NRSVUE)

 “2 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery” (Exodus 20:2 NRSVUE)

A cursory reading of the Exodus narrative clearly relays what actually took place. Moses was the one who physically delivered Israel out of Egypt, but he did so in the name and authority of God. God did it through Moses, his agent. When Israel saw the work God did through him, they “feared the Lord and believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses” (Ex 14:31). Moses is depicted as the shepherd of Israel, leading on behalf of HaShem.⁴³ In addition, it is worth noting that in two instances, Moses is referred to as “god” (elohim).⁴⁴ The name of God is a communicable vehicle of authority (cf. Ex 23:21)—those whom the LORD sends and endows with authority can be given his names and titles, such as “god.”

Elijah is another particularly noteworthy prophetic agent of God, due to his not having experienced death. It is recorded that he “went up by a whirlwind to heaven” (2 Kings 2:11) before he could die by any other means. Many rabbinic commentators have commented on this phenomenon, asserting that Elijah’s ascension was really a transfiguration of his body, allowing his soul to ascend and remain active in earthly affairs.⁴⁵ In Jewish thought, Elijah is viewed as a guide to Israel, appearing when necessary to give revelation or aid the Jewish people. In the Talmud, there are numerous instances where it is said that Elijah appeared to the Sages to relay a message.⁴⁶ Tradition holds that at every circumcision, the spirit of Elijah is present.⁴⁷ A cup of wine is also always set aside for Elijah at a Passover seder, where a child attending opens the door to see if he has come.⁴⁸ The prophet Malachi as well fortells that Elijah will play a role in heralding the Messianic redemption as “the messenger of the covenant” (Mal 3:23-24). These roles suggest that Elijah remains actively involved in Jewish life, making his presence known in spiritually significant moments as an agent of HaShem.

As agents, prophets likewise speak on behalf of God. “Thus says the LORD” or variations like it are extremely common prophetic formulas in the OT and often come from the mouth of a prophet speaking in God’s name and authority.⁴⁹

Eliezer, the Agent of Abraham

Another example can be found in Genesis 24, where Abraham sends his servant Eliezar to go find a wife for his son Issac.

“2 Abraham said to his servant, the oldest of his house, who had charge of all that he had, ‘Put your hand under my thigh 3 and I will make you swear by the Lord, the God of heaven and earth, that you will not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites, among whom I live, 4 but will go to my country and to my kindred and get a wife for my son Isaac’ … 22 When the camels had finished drinking, the man took a gold nose ring weighing half a shekel and two bracelets for her arms weighing ten gold shekels, 23 and said, ‘Tell me whose daughter you are. Is there room in your father’s house for us to spend the night?’ 24 She said to him, ‘I am the daughter of Bethuel son of Milcah, whom she bore to Nahor.’ 25 She added, ‘We have plenty of straw and fodder and a place to spend the night.’ 26 The man bowed his head and worshiped the Lord 27 and said, ‘Blessed be the Lord, the God of my master Abraham, who has not forsaken his steadfast love and his faithfulness toward my master. As for me, the Lord has led me on the way to the house of my master’s kin.’ 28 Then the girl ran and told her mother’s household about these things. 29 Rebekah had a brother whose name was Laban; Laban ran out to the man, to the spring. 30 As soon as he had seen the nose ring and the bracelets on his sister’s arms and when he heard the words of his sister Rebekah, ‘Thus the man spoke to me,’ he went to the man; and there he was, standing by the camels at the spring. 31 He said, ‘Come in, O blessed of the Lord. Why do you stand outside when I have prepared the house and a place for the camels?’” (Genesis 24:2–4, 22–31 NRSVUE)

 In this scenario, Eliezar acted as the agent of Abraham, the father of the groom, who delivered kiddushin to the future bride. Kiddushin in a Jewish marriage involves giving the bride a ring or something of value to represent the spiritual union between the two. The use of appointed agents to give or receive kiddushin is specifically permitted in the Mishnah, a body of Jewish law codified in 200 CE.

“A man can betroth a woman by himself or by means of his agent. Similarly, a woman can become betrothed by herself or by means of her agent. A man can betroth his daughter to a man when she is a young woman, either by himself or by means of his agent.”⁵⁰

Abraham was able to acquire a wife for his son without either of them having met her due to the principle of agency, wherein, in legal contexts, the agent functions in partnership with the sender.

Joseph, the Agent of Pharaoh 

In Genesis 41, we see another example of agency, where Pharaoh invests his complete authority in Joseph to serve as his representative.

“40 You shall be over my house, and all my people shall order themselves as you command; only with regard to the throne will I be greater than you.’ 41 And Pharaoh said to Joseph, ‘See, I have set you over all the land of Egypt.’ 42 Removing his signet ring from his hand, Pharaoh put it on Joseph’s hand; he arrayed him in garments of fine linen and put a gold chain around his neck. 43 He had him ride in the chariot of his second-in-command; and they cried out in front of him, ‘Bow the knee!’ Thus he set him over all the land of Egypt. 44 Moreover Pharaoh said to Joseph, ‘I am Pharaoh, and without your consent no one shall lift up hand or foot in all the land of Egypt.’ 45 Pharaoh gave Joseph the name Zaphenath-paneah; and he gave him Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, as his wife. Thus Joseph gained authority over the land of Egypt. 46 Joseph was thirty years old when he entered the service of Pharaoh king of Egypt” … “18 Then Judah stepped up to him and said, ‘Oh my lord, let your servant speak a word in my lord’s ear, and do not let your anger burn against your servant, for you are like Pharaoh himself’” (Genesis 41:40–46; 44:18 NRSVUE) 

This example is particularly germane in understanding the extent to which agency reaches. For all intents and purposes, Joseph was Pharaoh. Any act done by him was done in Pharaoh’s name and authority. He was second in command over Egypt as a legal partner (tenet 4), and only concerning the throne was he inferior to Pharaoh.⁵¹

Aaron, the Agent of HaShem

During the Exodus narrative, one of the signs God had Moses and Aaron perform to demonstrate the power of God was turning the Nile River into blood.

“17 Thus says the Lord: By this you shall know that I am the Lord. See, with the staff that is in my hand I will strike the water that is in the Nile, and it shall be turned to blood. 18 The fish in the Nile shall die, the Nile itself shall stink, and the Egyptians shall be unable to drink water from the Nile.” 19 The Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Take your staff and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt—over their rivers, their canals, their ponds, and all their pools of water—so that they may become blood; and there shall be blood throughout the whole land of Egypt, even in vessels of wood and in vessels of stone.’” 20 Moses and Aaron did just as the Lord commanded. In the sight of Pharaoh and of his officials he lifted up the staff and struck the water in the Nile, and all the water in the Nile was turned into blood” (Exodus 7:17–20 NRSVUE)

Notice that in verse 17, God says he will take the staff in his own hand and strike the Nile, turning it to blood. However, in 18-20, it is Aaron who fulfills this declaration with his own staff. Aaron served as a terrestrial agent of HaShem who fulfilled this sign and wonder on behalf of the one true God. 

The Priests, Agents of HaShem

Throughout the Torah, the Aaronic priests are depicted as having divine authority in the service of the LORD.⁵² They had several important tasks, such as the daily offerings,⁵³ sin sacrifices,⁵⁴ and teaching of the Law.⁵⁵ However, their position in providing the children of Israel with temporal bodily atonement on behalf of God is arguably the greatest.⁵⁶ God's prerogative of forgiving sins has been bestowed upon his priestly agents. The prophet Malachi calls the priests “messengers of the Lord” (Mal 2:7), which highlights their role as intermediaries between God and Israel. Consider this passage in the Talmud in which the priests are said to be agents of the LORD.

“But consider that which Rav Huna, son of Rav Yehoshua, says with regard to the service in the Temple: These priests are the agents of the Merciful One, i.e., they perform the Temple service as the emissaries of God.” (b.Kiddushin 23b:3)

The Judges, Agents of HaShem

The judges of Israel are another group of human agents who serve and act in God’s name as his legal partners. Those of them seated on the Sanhedrin were said to have been filled with the holy spirit to guide them in their rulings⁵⁷—thus, their halacha is binding upon all of Israel.⁵⁸ Disobeying their judicial authority is worthy of death.⁵⁹

 “10 Carry out exactly the decision that they announce to you from the place that the Lord will choose, diligently observing everything they instruct you. 11 You must carry out the law that they interpret for you or the ruling that they announce to you; do not turn aside from the decision that they announce to you, either to the right or to the left.” (Deut 17:10-11 NRSVUE)

In addition to making legal rulings, other human judges were appointed to lead and deliver the children of Israel,⁶⁰ having likewise been empowered by God’s spirit.⁶¹ 

The judges’ role as agents of HaShem likewise allows them to share in his titles. One example is “god” (elohim), a designation applied to them throughout the OT.⁶² The NASB2020 translation renders elohim as simply “God” in Exodus 21:6, yet includes “or the judges who acted in God’s name” in a footnote for the verse. Another example is "savior" (Jdg 3:9, 15), which is especially notable considering God's assertion that he is the only Savior (Isa 43:3, 11; 45:21; Hos 13:4). The fact that the judges of Israel can bear titles uniquely associated with HaShem illustrates the functional applications of agency, whereby the sent one fully represents their sender.

Joshua, the Agent of HaShem

Toward the end of Moses’ life, as he was approaching death, he told the Israelites that he would not go before them to lead them into the promised land. Rather, the one who will do so is God himself. 

“1 Moses went out and spoke these words to all Israel. 2 He said to them, ‘I am now 120 years old; I can no longer act as your leader. The LORD has told me, “You will not cross the Jordan.” 3 The LORD your God is the One who will cross ahead of you. He will destroy these nations before you, and you will drive them out. Joshua is the one who will cross ahead of you, as the LORD has said’” (Deuteronomy 31:1–3 HCSB)

Yet in the very same verse, Moses says that Joshua is the one who will cross ahead of them. Here, we can see another deliberate portrayal of an agent of God serving as his representative. 

The Twelve Spies, Agents of Moses

After their exodus from the land of Egypt, the Israelites set out for the land flowing with milk and honey, which was promised to their ancestors. Before they could inherit the land, they first had to do reconnaissance to ensure it was safe for them to inhabit. This led to Moses commissioning twelve spies to scope out the land at the command of God:

“1 The Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 2 “Send men to spy out the land of Canaan, which I am giving to the Israelites; from each of their ancestral tribes you shall send a man, every one a leader among them.” 3 So Moses sent them from the wilderness of Paran, according to the command of the Lord, all of them leading men among the Israelites… 17 Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan and said to them, “Go up there into the Negeb, and go up into the hill country, 18 and see what the land is like and whether the people who live in it are strong or weak, whether they are few or many, 19 and whether the land they live in is good or bad, and whether the towns that they live in are unwalled or fortified, 20 and whether the land is rich or poor, and whether there are trees in it or not. Be bold, and bring some of the fruit of the land.” Now it was the season of the first ripe grapes.” (Num 13:1-3, 17-20)

In this narrative, the twelve spies acted as agents to discern the habitability of the land of Canaan on behalf of Moses and the entire congregation of Israel. 

The King of Israel, the Agent of HaShem

The king of Israel is another highly qualified human agent who receives direct authority from God.⁶³ Scripture portrays HaShem as the ultimate, supreme ruler over the world (Ps 47:7-8; 93:1-2; 95:3; 96:10; 97:1; 98:6; 99:1; Isa 33:17, 22; Zeph 3:15; Zech 14:9), "melech ha'olam" (king of the universe). God is king, yet he shares this title with his appointed Israelite agents to rule over Israel on his behalf.

The Davidic kings are said to be God’s sons (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chron 17:13; Psalm 2). The designation “Son of God” is a royal title signifying the close association between God and the royal agent he appoints. In addition, the king of Israel partakes in God’s attributes, such as his faithfulness and covenant love (compare Ps 89:14 with 89:24). He is empowered by God and strengthened by his arm (Ps 89:20-21). The king’s judgments are said to come from the LORD (Psalm 72:1), and, as an appointed agent, he is referred to as “god,” being that he is a representative of the one true God on earth (Psalm 45:6-7).⁶⁴ The Davidic king of Isaiah's day (likely Hezekiah) bore two more of God's titles, namely "Mighty God" and "Everlasting Father" (Isaiah 9:6). Solomon (the third king of Israel) was said to have sat on “the throne of the LORD” (1 Chron 29:23), and even received “worship” in tandem with HaShem (1 Chron 29:20).⁶⁵ God demonstrates his relationship with David as one of agency by declaring, “Through my servant David I will save my people Israel from the hand of the Philistines and from all their enemies.” (‭‭2 Samuel‬ ‭3‬:‭18‬).

Further evidence of the king’s role in reigning on behalf of God on earth is Ezekiel’s portrayal of God as a shepherd over Israel (Eze 34:11-12). God says that he himself will seek out his sheep, that he will gather, shepherd, take care of, and rule over them in the Messianic era. Yet immediately after this, he states:

"21 Because you push with flank and shoulder and butt at all the weak animals with your horns until you have scattered them far and wide, 22 I will save my flock, and they shall no longer be ravaged, and I will judge between sheep and sheep. 23 I will set up over them one shepherd, my servant David, and he shall feed them; he shall feed them and be their shepherd. 24 And I, the LORD, will be their God, and my servant David shall be prince among them; I, the LORD, have spoken" (Ezek 34:21–24 NRSVUE)

The son of David (the king) will serve as the appointed shepherd over God’s flock, doing so in the name, power, and authority of the God of Israel. 

The Servants, the Agents of David

 Another noteworthy example of agency is when David sends a group of servants to ask Abigail to become his wife.

“40 When David’s servants came to Abigail at Carmel and told her that David had sent (shlachanu) them to her to make her his wife, 41 she immediately bowed low with her face to the ground and said, “Your handmaid is ready to be your maidservant, to wash the feet of my lord’s servants.” (1 Sam 25:40-41 JPS Tanach)

In this passage, Abigail was speaking to multiple servants at the same time, yet she addresses them all, saying, “your (second person singular Hebrew pronoun) handmaid is ready to be your maidservant.” Although there were multiple men, she was addressing solely David through their agency for them to pass on. This demonstrates another facet of agency in which multiple shlichim can be commissioned, functioning as a single person—the person they are representing. Levinthal notes that within the framework of agency, "there may be joint agents, i. e., two or more persons may be appointed by the principal to perform the same act. When the agents are joint, the execution of the agency must be

joint."⁶⁶

God’s Attributes as Agents 

A final example of agency in the OT I will discuss is the literary idea of God “sending” his personified attributes to complete tasks. One of the biggest examples is God’s spirit, which functions as his presence and power that he sends forth.⁶⁷

"30 When you send forth your spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of the ground" (Ps 104:30 NRSVue)

"Do not cast me away from your presence, and do not take your holy spirit from me.” (Psalm 51:11)

“Where can I go from your spirit? Or where can I flee from your presence?” (Psalm 139:7)

God’s spirit, also called “the holy spirit,” is associated with action, creation, and power. When God allows his spirit to dwell upon humans, it equips them with all sorts of spiritual powers and prerogatives that a typical human cannot perform, such as prophecy, miracles, enhanced wisdom, understanding, knowledge, or judgment.⁶⁸ It is crucial to note that any personality ascribed to the holy spirit is an act of personification on behalf of the Biblical authors, as pointed out by scholars such as Dustin R. Smith.

“The Holy Spirit often underwent personification, both in the Old and New Testaments, but the biblical authors never took this personification further to suggest that the Spirit was a conscious, separate person alongside the Father himself.”⁶⁹

This is made clear in other examples, where God sends forth some of his other personified attributes.⁷⁰ Consider the following texts:

“7 In the greatness of your majesty you overthrew your adversaries; you sent out your fury; it consumed them like stubble” (Exod 15:7 NRSVUE)

“3 O send out your light and your truth; let them lead me; let them bring me to your holy hill and to your dwelling” (Ps 43:3 NRSVUE)

“49 He let loose on them his fierce anger, wrath, indignation, and distress, a company of destroying angels” (Ps 78:49 NRSVUE)

“20 He sent out his word and healed them and delivered them from destruction” (Ps 107:20 NRSVUE)

“9 He sent redemption to his people; he has commanded his covenant forever. Holy and awesome is his name” (Ps 111:9 NRSVUE)

“15 He sends out his command to the earth; his word runs swiftly” (Ps 147:15 NRSVUE)

“18 He sends out his word and melts them; he makes his wind blow, and the waters flow” (Ps 147:18 NRSVUE)

“8 The Lord sent a word against Jacob, and it fell on Israel” (Isa 9:8 NRSVUE)

“11 so shall my word be that goes out from my mouth; it shall not return to me empty, but it shall accomplish that which I purpose and succeed in the thing for which I sent it” (Isa 55:11 NRSVUE)

“10 Send her [wisdom] forth from the holy heavens, and from the throne of your glory send her, that she may labor at my side, and that I may learn what is pleasing to you” (Wisd 9:10 NRSVUE)

God’s fury, light, anger, wrath, word, and wisdom⁷¹ are all faculties or attributes of God—ways that God is. Figuratively, he sends them forth as agents to complete tasks or fulfill duties. The personification of them mustn’t be taken beyond the literary domain that’s intended. The attributes are not distinct selves apart from God; they are ways by which God works and makes himself known to the world. 

Agency in the New Testament

After analyzing many of the most prominent examples of agency in the OT, this investigation will now proceed on to the NT to determine the role agency continued to play in the paradigms of the apostolic era. 

Angels, the Agents of HaShem, and or Jesus

Angels of God similarly continue to function as shlichim (agents) in the NT. Countless examples can be cited where angels appear to deliver a message on behalf of God.⁷² For instance, in the infancy narrative of Luke, the angel Gabriel appears to Zechariah, informing him of his wife Elizabeth's pregnancy (1:11-20). Yet again, he appears to Mary to inform her of her pregnancy with Jesus (1:26-38). Again, in Luke’s gospel, an angel appears to a group of shepherds transmitting a message from the LORD.

“9 Then an angel of the Lord stood before them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. 10 But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid, for see, I am bringing you good news of great joy for all the people: 11 to you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is the Messiah, the Lord. 12 This will be a sign for you: you will find a child wrapped in bands of cloth and lying in a manger… 15 When the angels had left them and gone into heaven, the shepherds said to one another, “Let us go now to Bethlehem and see this thing that has taken place, which the Lord has made known to us.” (Luke 2:9-12, 15)

While it was literally an angel who delivered the message, the shepherds recognized the authority in which the angel came, declaring that it was the Lord who revealed the sign to them through the angel. At the end of all four gospels, it is recorded that angels were tasked with announcing and declaring the resurrection of Christ (Matt 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:4-7, 23; John 20:11-13; Acts 1:10-11). In the book of Acts, a God-fearing gentile named Cornelius was visited by an angel during prayer and was told to fetch Peter to await further revelation (Acts 10:3-6). John of Patmos likewise encountered an angel who came bearing revelation from God. In this instance, it was Jesus who sent the angel, but since the message it was bearing was ultimately from the Father, this angel can be considered an agent of both God and his Son. 

“1 The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place, and he made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, 2 who testified to the word of God and to the testimony of Jesus Christ, even to all that he saw.” (Revelation 1:1-2)

Another depiction of angels in the NT is their role in ministering to and aiding Jesus and his disciples. Angels attend to Jesus after his temptation in the wilderness (Matt 4:11) and strengthen him in the garden of Gethsemane in the hours before his arrest (Luke 22:43). This theme continues in the book of Acts, only this time concerning his disciples. When some of the apostles were imprisoned by the Sadducees, a group of angels came to free them (Acts 5:19-20). When Peter was imprisoned by Herod Agrippa I, an angel came and freed him (Acts 12:7-11). Angels function as empowered delegates to protect God’s people from harm.

The final role of angels in the NT I will discuss is their role as mediators between God and Israel. On many occasions, God in the OT clearly says that he himself gave the Torah to the children of Israel.

“12 The LORD said to Moses, ‘Come up to Me on the mountain and stay there so that I may give you the stone tablets with the law and commandments I have written for their instruction’” (Exodus 24:12 HCSB)

“4 The LORD spoke to you face to face from the fire on the mountain. 5 At that time I was standing between the LORD and you to declare the word of the LORD to you, because you were afraid of the fire and did not go up the mountain” (Deuteronomy 5:4–5 HCSB)

“13 You came down on Mount Sinai and spoke to them from heaven. You gave them impartial ordinances, reliable instructions, and good statutes and commands” (Nehemiah 9:13 HCSB)

Yet in the NT, the authors relay a slightly different message. That is, the Torah was delivered by the agency of God’s angels.

“38 This is the one who was in the congregation in the wilderness together with the angel who spoke to him on Mount Sinai and with our fathers. He received living oracles to give to us…53 You received the law under the direction of angels and yet have not kept it” (Acts 7:38, 53 HCSB)

“19 Why then the law? It was added because of transgressions until the Seed to whom the promise was made would come. The law was put into effect through angels by means of a mediator” (Galatians 3:19 HCSB)

“2 For if the message spoken through angels was legally binding and every transgression and disobedience received a just punishment” (Hebrews 2:2 HCSB)

This is in alignment with the rabbinic hermeneutic that God has no form, cannot acquire one due to being utterly transcendent, and does not physically appear on earth; rather, he does so through agents and emissaries.⁷³ 

John the Baptist, the Agent of God

Just as the prophets of the OT period are depicted as agents of God, so too are those in the NT. John the Baptizer is arguably the most prominent, being that the Lord Jesus declares him to be the greatest man born among women (Matt 11:11). The author of John’s gospel designates the Baptizer as “a man sent from God whose name was John … [who] came as a witness to testify to the light, so that all might believe through him” (John 1:6-7). John the Baptizer’s role was to pave the way for the Lord Jesus,⁷⁴ and he had the honor of announcing him to the world as “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). His mission as a shaliach of God was a highly qualified one, the greatest of all prophets.

The Disciples, Agents of Jesus

The Greek equivalent to the Hebrew shaliach (agent) is apostolos (“apostle”), from the root apostello, meaning “to send out.”⁷⁵ The apostles and disciples of Jesus are his agents, sent out into the world to preach the gospel.⁷⁶

“The origin of the apostolic office lies… for example in Mishnah Berakhot 5.5: ‘a man’s agent is like to himself.’ the nucleus not only of the Jewish designation of shaliach, but also of the Christian apostolate as we find it in the NT…the specific Semitic and Jewish concept of representative authority which is implied in the designation of shaliach… St Paul’s letters are the only early document from which a reconstruction of apostolic self-consciousness seems at all possible [i.e.,] God or Christ is speaking through his mouth [1Thess 2.13; 2Cor 5.20; 13.3], like the prophet Jeremiah he is given authority to build up and destroy [2Cor 10.8; 13.10; and Gal 4.14]. Of course, this is reminiscent of [Matt 10.40; Luke 10.16. [In the OT] the Hebrew verb shalach is regularly used for the sending of prophets and the normal rendering of shalach in the Septuagint is apostellein [cp. Mat 23.34ff.]” 77

Towards the beginning of Jesus' ministry, he selected twelve initial disciples to serve as the core of his mission, tasking them with transmitting his teaching, spearheading the goal of preaching repentance, and announcing the coming kingdom of heaven.

“1 Then Jesus summoned his twelve disciples and gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to cure every disease and every sickness. 2 These are the names of the twelve apostles (apostolon, “agents”): first, Simon, also known as Peter, and his brother Andrew; James son of Zebedee and his brother John; 3 Philip and Bartholomew; Thomas and Matthew the tax collector; James son of Alphaeus and Thaddaeus; 4 Simon the Cananaean and Judas Iscariot, the one who betrayed him. 5 These twelve Jesus sent (apesteilen, root apostello) out with the following instructions…” (Matthew 10:1-5)

The twelve occupy a special role in the rank of Jesus’ followers, having their names inscribed on the foundation of New Jerusalem (Rev 21:14), and being granted the honor of judging the twelve tribes of Israel during the Messianic Era (Matt 19:28). During the Galilean mission, Jesus sent the twelve in pairs of two, empowering them with prerogatives such as “healing of the sick” and “authority over unclean spirits.”⁷⁸

“16 See, I am sending you out like sheep into the midst of wolves, so be wise as serpents and innocent as doves” (Matt 10:16 NRSVue)

Some time after this commission, Luke records that Jesus chose a group of 72 (or 70) disciples and “sent them on ahead of him in pairs to every town and place where he himself intended to go” (Luke 10:1). These disciples were similarly empowered as agents with the ability to cure sickness and cast out devils (Luke 10:9, 19). Their ministry was, in fact, so successful at claiming lost souls from the hand of the adversary that Jesus remarks, “I watched Satan fall from heaven like a flash of lightning” (Luke 10:18).

Jesus uses “sender” and “sent one” language so frequently in relation to his disciples that the influence the Jewish principle of agency had on his own theology is undeniable. 

“[A] person's agent is regarded as the person himself” (b.Nedarim 72b)

“40 Whoever welcomes you welcomes me, and whoever welcomes me welcomes the one who sent me” (Matt 10:40 NRSVue)

“37 Whoever welcomes one such child in my name welcomes me, and whoever welcomes me welcomes not me but the one who sent me” (Mark 9:37 NRSVue)

“37 Then the righteous will answer him, ‘Lord, when was it that we saw you hungry and gave you food or thirsty and gave you something to drink? 38 And when was it that we saw you a stranger and welcomed you or naked and gave you clothing? 39 And when was it that we saw you sick or in prison and visited you?’ 40 And the king will answer them, ‘Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did it to me.’” (Matt 25:37-40)

“48 [And] said to them, ‘Whoever welcomes this child in my name welcomes me, and whoever welcomes me welcomes the one who sent me, for the least among all of you is the greatest’” (Luke 9:48 NRSVue)

“16 Whoever listens to you listens to me, and whoever rejects you rejects me, and whoever rejects me rejects the one who sent me” (Luke 10:16 NRSVue)

“20 Very truly, I tell you, whoever receives one whom I send receives me, and whoever receives me receives him who sent me” (John 13:20 NRSVue)

Denying the sent ones of Jesus was like denying Jesus himself, being that the agent is to be regarded as the principal. This is solidified in John’s gospel, where it is recorded that Jesus and his disciples were baptizing in the land of Judea:

“22 After this Jesus and his disciples went into the region of Judea, and he spent some time there with them and baptized … 26 They came to John and said to him, ‘Rabbi, the one who was with you across the Jordan, to whom you testified, here he is baptizing, and all are going to him’” (John 3:22, 26 NRSVue)

However, later, the author of the gospel of John clarifies that “it was not Jesus himself, but his disciples who baptized” (John 4:2). The disciples were authorized to immerse others in the name of the Master. Jesus was baptizing people through his disciples. 

After his earthly ministry was complete, the role of being an “apostle” of Jesus shifted to include only those who received a commissioning from him after his resurrection to testify to it throughout the world. To be an apostle, they had to be an eyewitness to the resurrected Master.

“8 But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.” (Acts 1:8)

“40 but God raised him on the third day and allowed him to appear, 41 not to all the people but to us who were chosen by God as witnesses and who ate and drank with him after he rose from the dead. 42 He commanded us to preach to the people and to testify…” (Acts 10:40-42)

The gospels record the Master’s appearance to many of his followers, such as the twelve (Matt 28:16–20; Luke 24:36–43; John 20:19–29), Clopas and his companion (Luke 24:13–35; Mark 16:12–13), Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Salome, Joanna, and Mary the mother of Jesus (Matt 28:1–10; Mark 16:9; Luke 24:1–10; John 20:11–18). Paul records that Jesus appeared to more than 500 people, who, along with James, the brother of Jesus (who had an unrecorded encounter with the risen Master), and the twelve, comprise “the apostles” —the eyewitnesses of the risen Jesus tasked with testifying throughout the world. 

“4 and that he was buried and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures 5 and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. 8 Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.” (1 Cor 15:4-8)

While the Master initially focused on tending to the lost sheep of the house of Israel (Matt 10:6; 15:24), after his resurrection, the Master broadened the scope of preaching the gospel message, commissioning his followers to “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matt 28:19).⁷⁹ The agents of Jesus were to continue their mission of evangelism, focusing on making followers of all nations.

Similar to their earlier missions, the apostles post-resurrection similarly exercised divine prerogatives as agents and representatives of the Lord Jesus. John records that the apostles were delegated the authority to forgive sins (John 20:22-23). Peter and John heal a man born lame (Acts 3:1-10). The sick are healed from Peter’s shadow (Acts 5:12–16). Peter raises Tabitha from the dead (Acts 9:36-42). Paul, who was elected to be an agent (“apostle”) of Jesus on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:1-19), raises a man who died falling through a window (Acts 20:9-12). Objects that he touched were even used to heal the sick and cast out devils (Acts 19:11-12). 

Speaking of Paul, on the very road to Damascus, Jesus uses agency language to describe his disciples, the early church.

“3 Now as he was going along and approaching Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. 4 He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, ‘Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?’ 5 He asked, ‘Who are you, Lord?’ The reply came, ‘I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. 6 But get up and enter the city, and you will be told what you are to do’” (Acts 9:3–6 NRSVue)

As far as we know, Paul had never met Jesus in his entire life before this moment. Yet, Jesus asks Paul why he is persecuting him. As Luke records, Paul was persecuting the early Christians through imprisonment.⁸⁰ To quote Jesus himself, “Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did it to me” (Matthew 25:40). While Paul was not literally persecuting Jesus, he was persecuting his agents. Therefore, it is as if he were persecuting the Master himself. 

The Didache, a first-to second-century Jewish-Christian work containing teachings of the apostles, notes:

“1 Now receive whoever comes to teach you in all that has just been said. 2 But if this teacher, having turned aside, were to teach a different kind of teaching to undermine this teaching, do not obey him. However, if his teaching serves to promote righteousness and knowledge of the Lord, receive him as the Lord. 3 Concerning the emissaries and prophets, according to the ordinance of the good news, this is what you should do: 4 Let every emissary who comes to you be received as the Lord.”

This text further displays that “the Master laid down a principle that required disciples to receive agents of Yeshua who came in his name, offer them hospitality and sustenance, and heed their instruction.”⁸¹

“The next group discussed (11.3-6) is the 'emissary commonly translated as 'apostle": "Let every emissary who comes to you be received as the Lord" (11:4). The Greek term apostolos is related to the Hebrew term shaliach. meaning "sent one." Shaliach refers to a legal agent or representative that a man has dispatched on a mission to represent him and his interests. In Judaism shlichim (plural form, "sent ones" i.e., "apostles") did not occupy religious office but acted as agents of a sender. The Talmud states, "A man's shaliach has the same legal authority as the man himself" (m.Brachot 5:5 & b.Nedarim 72b). This concept is echoed, as we saw previously, in the words of our Master Yeshua: "Whoever receives you receives me, and whoever receives me receives him who sent me" (Matthew 10:40). A similar term is still used today in Chasidic Judaism, in which agents of a rebbe (rabbi) are called shluchim.” 82

The Servants, the Agents of the Centurion

After delivering his sermon on the Mount, Jesus headed towards Capernaum when a centurion came asking him for help:

“5 When he entered Capernaum, a centurion came to him, appealing to him 6 and saying, ‘Lord, my servant is lying at home paralyzed, in terrible distress.’ 7 And he said to him, ‘I will come and cure him.’ 8 The centurion answered, ‘Lord, I am not worthy to have you come under my roof, but only speak the word, and my servant will be healed. 9 For I also am a man under authority, with soldiers under me, and I say to one, “Go,” and he goes, and to another, “Come,” and he comes, and to my slave, “Do this,” and the slave does it’” (Matt 8:5-9 NRSVue)

Matthew records that the centurion himself came and spoke to Jesus to intercede on behalf of his servant. However, Luke records that the centurion sent Jewish elders to speak to Jesus on his behalf:

“1 After Jesus had finished all his sayings in the hearing of the people, he entered Capernaum. 2 A centurion there had a slave whom he valued highly and who was ill and close to death. 3 When he heard about Jesus, he sent some Jewish elders to him, asking him to come and heal his slave. 4 When they came to Jesus, they appealed to him earnestly, saying, ‘He is worthy of having you do this for him, 5 for he loves our people, and it is he who built our synagogue for us.’ 6 And Jesus went with them, but when he was not far from the house, the centurion sent friends to say to him, ‘Lord, do not trouble yourself, for I am not worthy to have you come under my roof; 7 therefore I did not presume to come to you. But only speak the word, and let my servant be healed’” (Luke 7:1–7 NRSVue)

With the insight the parallel account in the synoptics gives us, we are able to draw a historical conclusion as to what really transpired during this interaction. The centurion spoke to Jesus through the agency of the Jewish elders. Matthew did not make a historical error; in reality, he understood the Jewish principle of agency in which the sent one is to be regarded as the sender himself. 

James and John, the Agents of their Mother

While traveling on a road heading towards Jerusalem, the sons of Zebedee came to the Master to make a request:

“35 James and John, the sons of Zebedee, came forward to him and said to him, “Teacher, we want you to do for us whatever we ask of you.” 36 And he said to them, “What is it you want me to do for you?” 37 And they said to him, “Appoint us to sit, one at your right hand and one at your left, in your glory.” 38 But Jesus said to them, “You do not know what you are asking. Are you able to drink the cup that I drink or be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with?” 39 They replied, “We are able.” Then Jesus said to them, “The cup that I drink you will drink, and with the baptism with which I am baptized you will be baptized, 40 but to sit at my right hand or at my left is not mine to appoint, but it is for those for whom it has been prepared.”’ (Mark 10:35-40)

Similar to the aforementioned story with the centurion, Mark records that James and John themselves came to Jesus. However, this time Matthew deviates and records that their mother spoke to Jesus:

“20 Then the mother of the sons of Zebedee came to him with her sons, kneeling before him and asking a favor of him. 21 And he said to her, ‘What do you want?’ She said to him, ‘Declare that these two sons of mine will sit, one at your right hand and one at your left, in your kingdom.’ 22 But Jesus answered, ‘You do not know what you are asking. Are you able to drink the cup that I am about to drink?’ They said to him, ‘We are able.’ 23 He said to them, ‘You will indeed drink my cup, but to sit at my right hand and at my left, this is not mine to grant, but it is for those for whom it has been prepared by my Father.’ 24 When the ten heard it, they were angry with the two brothers” (Matt 20:20–24 NRSVue)

Reconstructing the event, we are able to yet again see the principle of agency, where the mother of James and John acted as an agent to make the request of Jesus on their behalf. 

Human Envoys, Agents of the King

In Jesus’ parable of the wedding banquet (Matt 22:1-10; Luke 14:15-24), he tells a story which is meant to describe the kingdom of heaven. A king prepares a wedding banquet for his son. When preparations are complete, he sends servants to notify the guests. The guests decline the invitation based on having more pressing matters, such as materialism and wealth. Matthew adds that the guests even seize and kill the servants of the king, leading to him destroying them and their city as punishment (Matt 22:5-7). Worried that the food will go to waste, the king invites the poor and disenfranchised to the feast, who take the seats originally for the guests. This parable serves as a warning to those who do not repent, such as the religious authorities of Jerusalem, who were led astray by materialism and sin and are charged with murdering Jesus and the prophets before him. Should they fail to repent, they will face punishment in this world, such as the destruction of Jerusalem, and punishment in the world to come, losing their place at the messianic banquet.⁸³ The parable incorporates an understanding of the principle of agency, in which envoys (the prophets and Jesus) serve as representatives of the king (God) and are sent to deliver a message to wedding guests (the religious authorities/Israel).

Servants, Agents of their Master 

In Jesus’ parable of the laborers in the vineyard (Matt 20:1-16), he yet again gives an illustration of the kingdom of heaven. A man hires workers to harvest his vineyard and sends them out to work. He agrees to pay each of them a denarius for a day's work. He hires one group of workers at the first hour, a second group at the third hour, a third group at the sixth hour, a fourth at the ninth hour, and a fifth at the eleventh hour (an hour before sunset). At the end of the day, he summons all of his workers and begins to pay each of them their promised denarius, starting with the fifth group and ending with the first group. However, those who worked longer shifts believe they deserved more money, upset that they got paid the same as those who only worked for one hour. The man responds that he desires to be generous, and it is his prerogative to pay the last group the same as the first. This parable serves to highlight the reality of the kingdom of heaven in which the first shall be last, and the last shall be first. Those hired earlier in the day represent the righteous, while those hired at the end of it represent repentant sinners. It is God’s right to exercise his mercy as he pleases and reward his children as he sees fit. We are all in desperate need of his grace and have no right to judge another man as inferior or less deserving.⁸⁴ The servant workers of the king (us) act as agents of their master (Jesus), laboring in his name to harvest the vineyard (good works) in the desire of their wages (reward in the world to come).

Jesus yet again utilizes the hermeneutic of agency in terms of a master and his servants in the parable of the wicked tenants (Matt 21:33-41; Mark 12:1-12; Luke 20:9-19). A man planted a vineyard, cleared stones, and used them to construct a wall, and carved out an area for pressing grapes to make wine. Before the first harvest, the man has to make an unexpected journey. He rents out the vineyard to tenants who agree to work for a share of the produce. When harvest time came, he sent a servant to collect, but the tenants refused to share the crop. They beat the servant and sent him away. The owner then sends another servant, who receives even worse treatment. The third servant they kill, and all other servants after are treated likewise. The owner then sends his son in hopes of settling the dispute. However, the tenants plot against him, hoping they could take complete control of the crop if they kill the heir. As a result of these crimes, the owner kills the wicked tenants and rents the vineyard to others. This parable was a rebuke of the wicked generation of the Master. The owner (God) rented out a vineyard (Israel) to tenants (the religious leaders of Israel) to maintain the crop until harvest time of the produce (righteousness). When the time came, he sent his agents, the servants (prophets), to collect. However, they mistreated his servants, killing many of them.

“Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to it! How often have I desired to gather your children together as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you were not willing!” (Matt 23:37)

In a last effort, the owner sends his son (Jesus), whom they also kill. As a result, the owner kills them (the destruction of Jerusalem and the eradication of the Sadducees) and rents the vineyard out to others (a future generation of religious leaders whose righteousness will usher in the Messianic era).⁸⁵ This parable likewise includes the principle of agency, where the prophets are represented by servants and are depicted as emissaries of God, and Jesus is represented by the son of a vineyard owner, who serves as a supreme agent and representative of his Father. 

The Holy Spirit, the Agent of Jesus

In the New Testament, the literary custom of personifying God’s spirit is continued. Paul says that the spirit “intercedes for us” (Romans 8:26), “searches all things” (1 Cor. 2:10), and urges us not to "grieve the holy spirit” (Ephesians 4:30). Jesus says the spirit will “speak” and “guide” us into truth (John 16:13). Agency language is also used of the holy spirit to describe the Father sending “the Advocate” through the Son.

"26 But the Advocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you everything and remind you of all that I have said to you" (John 14:26 NRSVUE)

"26 When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth who comes from the Father, he will testify on my behalf" (John 15:26 NRSVUE)

“7 Nevertheless I tell you the truth: it is to your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go away, the Advocate will not come to you, but if I go, I will send him to you” (John 16:7 NRSVue)

“33 Being therefore exalted at the right hand of God and having received from the Father the promise of the Holy Spirit, he has poured out this that you both see and hear” (Acts 2:33 NRSVue)

“6 This Spirit he poured out on us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior” (Titus 3:6 NRSVue)

In one manner, the holy spirit is the agent of Jesus. He is the means by which HaShem fulfills the New Covenant promise of indwelling his people (Eze 11:19-20; 36:26-27). In another, it is the agent of the Father, the ultimate source of it, and to whom it belongs.⁸⁶

Jesus, the Agent of God

The final section of this article will be dedicated to illustrating the culmination of agency within scripture; that is, the portrayal of Jesus as the ultimate revelatory agent of God.⁸⁷

“Jesus is thus a faithful shaliach, or agent; Jewish law taught that the man’s agent was as a man himself (backed by his full authority), to the extent that the agent faithfully represented him.”⁸⁸

In two places, Jesus is explicitly called an “apostle” (apostolos, “agent”) of God.

"15 For I gave you an example, so that you also would do just as I did for you. 16 Truly, truly I say to you, a slave is not greater than his master, nor is one who is sent (apostolos) greater than the one who sent him." (John 13:15-16)

“1 Therefore, brothers and sisters, holy partners in a heavenly calling, consider that Jesus, the apostle (apostolos) and high priest of our confession” (Heb 3:1 NRSVue)

In addition to explicitly being called an agent, the NT repeatedly characterizes the relationship between Father and Son as sender and sent one.⁸⁹ John’s gospel is particularly replete with passages where Jesus is said to have been sent by God as his agent.⁹⁰

“24 He answered, ‘I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel’” (Matt 15:24 NRSVue)

“43 But he said to them, ‘I must proclaim the good news of the kingdom of God to the other cities also, for I was sent for this purpose’” (Luke 4:43 NRSVue)

16 “For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life. 17 Indeed, God did not send the Son into the world to condemn the world but in order that the world might be saved through him.” (John 3:16-17)

“14 And we have seen and do testify that the Father has sent his Son as the Savior of the world” (1 John 4:14 NRSVue)

Often, a reader may picture the “sending” language of Jesus as a divine figure leaving his heavenly domain to assume human nature. This, however, would be a mistake. No Biblical author explicitly makes such a claim—yes, not even in John chapter 1. 

The Old Testament is rather explicit about who the creator of the universe is. It is God, that is to say, the Father.⁹¹ He asserts that he (singular pronoun) alone established the earth and its foundations and had no help in doing so (Isa 44:24; 45:12, 18). Sometimes, biblical authors like to highlight specific attributes of God that he used or exemplified while creating. God is said to have created the universe with his “word,” that is, his creative speech. He “spoke” the world into existence (Gen 1:3; Psa 33:6). It is paramount at this moment to set aside all presuppositions to avoid an anachronism of imposing later ideas on these authors. The “word of God” is nothing other than his speech. “God speaking” is not a distinct Person from the Father; it’s a way he is. Other authors state that God created the world through his wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.⁹² The book of Proverbs and later intertestamental literature even goes as far as personifying God’s wisdom as a woman (Lady Wisdom) who says she “came out of the mouth of God,”⁹³ was there when God established the heavens,⁹⁴ helped God to create the world,⁹⁵ “dwells with prudence,” “loves those who love her,” “walks in the way of righteousness,” “rejoices in the world,” “builds a house,” and “prepares food and wine” for the righteous.⁹⁶ These are all things which are typically said of selves, yet here they are being said of the wisdom of God. This is the literary device of personification. 

These writers sometimes even go as far as describing Lady Wisdom as becoming incarnate amongst humanity. Proverbs depicts the Woman of Substance (the “Proverbs 31 woman”) as a reflection or incarnation of Lady Wisdom. Compare the descriptions of Lady Wisdom and the Woman of Substance: both are more valuable than jewels (Proverbs 31:10; 3:15), offer good things (31:12; 2:8-9), despise evil (31:12; 8:13), are delightful (31:13; 3:15), bring forth profit (31:14; 3:14), offer bread (31:14; 9:5), are homeowners (31:15; 9:1), have female servants (31:15; 9:3), bear fruit (31:16; 8:19), speak at the gates of the city (31:23; 8:3), and laugh (31:25; 8:30-31).⁹⁷ The book of Sirach depicts the high priest Simon Ben Onias as another incarnation of Lady Wisdom. Compare the descriptions of Lady Wisdom and the high priest Simon Ben Onias: both pronounce glory (Sirach 50:20; 24:1), situate themselves in the midst of the people (50:5; 24:12), are rosebushes (50:8; 24:14), are incense (50:9; 24:15), are olive trees (50:10; 24:14), are cypress trees (50:10; 24:13), are cedar trees (50:12; 24:13), and are pleasing fragrances (50:15; 24:15).⁹⁸ The sapiential and Rabbinic writings even describe Lady Wisdom as having been given a command from God to find a place to dwell in Israel, leading to her becoming inbooked in the form of the Torah.⁹⁹ The Midrash Rabbah even plainly states (using Proverbs 8 as proof, a text about Lady Wisdom) that HaShem used the Torah to create the universe (Bereshit Rabbah 1:1). This illustration of an attribute of God becoming incarnate is clearly meant to be non-literal—figurative. An attribute of God cannot literally become a human being or a scroll; it can, however, be revealed in those things.¹⁰⁰

As noted earlier, God’s personified attributes can figuratively function as his agents. John’s prologue, which draws upon the earlier traditions of Lady Wisdom becoming incarnate on earth, does not in the least diminish the portrayal of Jesus as a shaliach of God; rather, it enhances it. Jesus is the locus and furthest revelation of Lady Wisdom—God’s word, wisdom, and Torah. He is “the word made flesh,”¹⁰¹ the human in whom Lady Wisdom, God’s agent, found her fullest expression.

Poetic designations aside, the overall language of being “sent” ought to be understood in light of the Jewish principle of agency; that is, Jesus was sent by God missionally and commissionally.¹⁰² In Jesus’ parable of the wicked tenants (Matt 21:33–41; Mark 12:1–12; Luke 20:9–19), he states that the owner (God) of the vineyard (Israel) sent servants (the prophets) to collect the harvest (the fruits of obedience), but they were beaten, killed, and stoned by those renting the vineyard (the religious leaders). Last of all, the owner sends his son (Jesus), whom they also kill. The “sending” of Jesus in this parable is in the same manner as the prophets before him—agency.

Tenet 1: The agent fully represents the one who sent him

In varying degrees, all of God’s agents are meant to reveal God to the world as his representatives. However, Jesus is presented as the furthest revelation of HaShem.¹⁰³ He is the “visible image of the invisible God” (Coll 1:15), he is “in the form of God” (Phil 2:6), and he is “the one and only Son—the one who is at the Father’s side” who reveals God (John 1:18). Jesus puts his role as the revelatory agent of HaShem best, saying, “If you’ve seen me you’ve seen the Father” (John 14:9).

“A person's agent is regarded as the person himself.” (b.Kiddushin 41b)

As God's agent, Jesus shares in the names and titles of God, the one who sent him, because “All things that the Father has” (John 16:15) are his. Seeing as Moses, the king of Israel, the judges, and angels are referred to as “god” (elohim), it is no surprise at all that Jesus, the prophet like unto Moses, the true king of Israel, the judge of the world, and the one superior to all angels (Heb 1:4) is referred to as “god” a handful of times in the NT.¹⁰⁴ Some of God’s other names and titles that Jesus now possesses are “the First and the Last” (Rev 1:17; 22:13), “King of Kings” (Rev 17:14; 19:16), “Savior” (Luke 2:11; John 4:42; Acts 5:31), ”Lord” (Matt 7:21; John 13:13), ”Father” (Isa 9:6; John 13:33; 14:9), “God” (Heb 1:8-9),¹⁰⁵ and the very name of HaShem himself.

“While I was with them, I protected them in your name that you have given me...” (‭‭John‬ ‭17‬:‭12‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬)

 The NT authors clearly state that Jesus came in his Father's name, as an appointed agent always comes in the name and authority of the one who sent them.¹⁰⁶

“The crowds that went ahead of him and that followed were shouting, ‘Hosanna to the Son of David! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord! Hosanna in the highest heaven!’” (‭‭Matthew‬ ‭21‬:‭9‬)

“43 I have come in my Father’s name, and you do not accept me; if another comes in his own name, you will accept him.” (John 5:43)

This explains how Jesus can fulfill prophecies in the OT in which HaShem promised to do something, or when NT authors ascribe texts about HaShem to Jesus.¹⁰⁷ For instance, “the voice of one crying in the wilderness” (Isa 40:3) was supposed to prepare the way for HaShem, when in reality John the Baptist prepared the way for Jesus (Matt 3:1–3; Mark 1:1–4; Luke 3:1–6). HaShem promises to touch down on the Mount of Olives, cleaving it into two (Zech 14:3-4), yet the NT ascribes this eschatological event to the second coming of Jesus (Matt 24:29–31; Mark 13:24–27; Luke 21:25–28; Rev 19:11–16). The harmonization of this lies in the principle of agency. Just as Aaron fulfilled HaShem’s declaration of striking the Nile with his own hand, Moses fulfilled HaShem’s claim of delivering Israel himself out of Egypt, and Joshua fulfilled HaShem’s promise of going up with the children of Israel to the promised land, Jesus acts as the ultimate representative and agent of the one true God, fulfilling these prophecies on his behalf.

Much like the Aaronic priests and the seraph of Isaiah’s temple vision who provided atonement on behalf of God, Jesus serves as heavenly high priest over the celestial tabernacle, providing eternal forgiveness under the New Covenant as the priestly agent of God. 

“17 Therefore, He had to be made like His brethren in all things, so that He might become a merciful and faithful high priest in things pertaining to God, to make propitiation for the sins of the people” (Heb 2:17)

“11 But when Christ appeared as a high priest of the good things to come…12 and not through the blood of goats and calves, but through His own blood, He entered the holy place once for all, having obtained eternal redemption” (Heb 9:11–12)

The King of Israel occupied a highly authorized role, serving as the royal agent who represented God as the ruler of Israel. Likewise, the Jesus of the NT is presented as the fulfillment of the Davidic promise and monarchy,¹⁰⁸ the final and everlasting king of Israel.¹⁰⁹

“49 Nathanael answered Him, ‘Rabbi, You are the Son of God; You are the King of Israel.’” (John 1:49)

“13 took the branches of the palm trees and went out to meet Him, and began to shout, ‘Hosanna! Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord, even the King of Israel.’” (John 12:13)

“37 Therefore Pilate said to Him, ‘So You are a king?’ Jesus answered, ‘You say correctly that I am a king. For this I have been born, and for this I have come into the world, to testify to the truth.’” (John 18:37)

Just as prophets exemplified divine privileges and prerogatives that normally belong to God alone, such as miracles, healing, and forgiveness of sins, Jesus, the ultimate prophet and agent of God, exercised unparalleled authority.¹¹⁰ He healed countless people.¹¹¹ He suspended the laws of nature by walking across the water.¹¹² He fed 5000 people with only five loaves of bread.¹¹³ He raised Lazarus from the dead.¹¹⁴ He cast out demons with mere words.¹¹⁵ He possessed the ability to forgive sins.¹¹⁶ During his ministry before his death, Jesus possessed all authority on earth (cf. Matt 9:8). After his death and subsequent exaltation to God’s right hand, Jesus now possesses all authority in heaven and on earth.

“18 And Jesus came and said to them, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me.” (Matt 28:18)

“27 For God has put all things in subjection under his feet. But when it says, “All things are put in subjection,” it is plain that this does not include the one who put all things in subjection under him. 28 When all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will also be subjected to the one who put all things in subjection under him, so that God may be all in all.” (1 Cor 15:27-28)

HaShem is the intrinsic King of the cosmos. "The earth is the Lord’s and all that is in it" (Psalm 24:1). "Heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool" (Isaiah 66:1). Jesus' appointment to the status of functional equality with God, having everything under his feet, highlights his role as God's supreme representative who reigns over the world in his stead.

Tenet 2-3: The sender is greater than the sent agent; The agent is fully obedient to the sender

However, what is crucial to note is that all of Jesus’ powers and abilities are said to be God-given.¹¹⁷ Just like any agent, Jesus’ authority is derived from the one who sent him, God the Father. Even in Jesus’ position at God’s right hand, he remains second-in-command over the universe. Recall Joseph’s exaltation, where he was set over all of Egypt, being like Pharaoh himself yet subordinate to Pharaoh regarding the throne. Similarly, Jesus has been set over all of the world, yet remains subordinate to God, who established his position. Jesus is the risen Lord who rules under the authority of HaShem (Psalm 110:1; Acts 2:32-36).

During Jesus’ ministry on earth, he made his agent status pertinently clear, emphasizing his subordinate role as a servant of God.¹¹⁸ 

"If you loved me, you would rejoice that I am going to the Father, because the Father is greater than I." (John 14:28)

In particular, John’s gospel goes at length to set this precedent. Indeed, “John contains more texts about the Son’s subordination to the Father than any other book of the Bible.”¹¹⁹ Jesus came not to do his will, but the will of the one who sent him. 

“39 And going a little farther, he threw himself on the ground and prayed, ‘My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass from me, yet not what I want but what you want’” (Matt 26:39 NRSVue)

“30 I can do nothing on my own. As I hear, I judge, and my judgment is just because I seek to do not my own will but the will of him who sent me” (John 5:30 NRSVue)

“38 [For] I have come down from heaven, not to do my own will but the will of him who sent me” (John 6:38 NRSVue)

He came not to speak his own words under his own initiative; instead, he came to speak only the words of God, the one who sent him.

“15 Then the Jews were astonished, saying, ‘How does this man have such learning, when he has never been taught?’ 16 Then Jesus answered them, ‘My teaching is not mine but his who sent me. 17 Anyone who resolves to do the will of God will know whether the teaching is from God or whether I am speaking on my own’” (John 7:15–17 NRSVue)

“28 So Jesus said, ‘When you have lifted up the Son of Man, then you will realize that I am he and that I do nothing on my own but I speak these things as the Father instructed me’” (John 8:28 NRSVue)

“40 But now you are trying to kill me, a man who has told you the truth that I heard from God. Abraham did not do this” (John 8:40 NRSVue)

“49 [For] I have not spoken on my own, but the Father who sent me has himself given me a commandment about what to say and what to speak. 50 And I know that his commandment is eternal life. What I speak, therefore, I speak just as the Father has told me’” (John 12:49–50 NRSVue)

“24 Whoever does not love me does not keep my words, and the word that you hear is not mine but is from the Father who sent me” (John 14:24 NRSVue)

Jesus says he came not to do his own works, but rather the works of the one who sent him.

“34 Jesus said to them, ‘My food is to do the will of him who sent me and to complete his work’” (John 4:34 NRSVue)

“36 But I have a testimony greater than John’s. The works that the Father has given me to complete, the very works that I am doing, testify on my behalf that the Father has sent me” (John 5:36 NRSVue)

“10 Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own, but the Father who dwells in me does his works” (John 14:10 NRSVue)

“1 After Jesus had spoken these words, he looked up to heaven and said, ‘Father, the hour has come; glorify your Son so that the Son may glorify you … 3 And this is eternal life, that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent. 4 I glorified you on earth by finishing the work that you gave me to do’” (John 17:1, 3–4 NRSVue)

“22 ‘You that are Israelites, listen to what I have to say: Jesus of Nazareth, a man attested to you by God with deeds of power, wonders, and signs that God did through him among you, as you yourselves know’” (Acts 2:22 NRSVue)

“38 [How] God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power, how he went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil, for God was with him” (Acts 10:38 NRSVue)

Tenet 4: The agent is the legal partner of the sender

While the judges seated on the Sanhedrin issued judgments and rulings over Israel as God’s legal agents, Jesus was appointed by God to the status of global judgment at the end of days. God the Father will judge every man through his eschatological legal agent, his Son.

“22 The Father judges no one but has given all judgment to the Son … 27 and he has given him authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of Man … 30 I can do nothing on my own. As I hear, I judge, and my judgment is just, because I seek to do not my own will but the will of him who sent me” (John 5:30 NRSVUE)

“42 He commanded us to preach to the people and to testify that he is the one ordained by God as judge of the living and the dead” (Acts 10:42 NRSVUE)

“31 [Because] he has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed, and of this he has given assurance to all by raising him from the dead” (Acts 17:31 NRSVUE)

“16 [On] the day when, according to my gospel, God, through Jesus Christ, will judge the secret thoughts of all” (Rom 2:16 NRSVUE)

Tenet 5: The agent returns to the sender when the mission is complete

After fulfilling his mission on earth, Jesus completed his role as an agent by returning to his principal. The gospels record that after his resurrection, Jesus ascended to God’s right hand in heaven (Matt 28:16–20; Mark 16:19–20; Luke 24:50–53; John 6:62; 13:3; 16:28; 20:17; Acts 1:2, 9–11), satisfying his duty as a shaliach to return to God his sender. 

Tenet 6: The agent can commission his own agents

Lastly, as God's agent (apostle), Jesus is qualified to commission his own sub-agents to further his mission, as seen in his selection of the twelve, his commissioning of the 72, and his global initiative of spreading the gospel through his followers. The sent ones of Jesus serve as his representatives on earth and, through the chain of agency, also represent God, the sender of Jesus. Denying the agents of Jesus is to deny Jesus himself, and to deny Jesus is to deny God himself.

“As the Father has sent me, so I send you.” (John 14:21)

Conclusion

This investigation has illustrated the degree to which the Jewish principle of agency influenced the Biblical authors. It pervades the very framework that comprises the Bible and is, in most cases, presupposed. From Genesis to Revelation, the authors demonstrate an understanding that the relationship between the sent one and their sender is uniquely powerful. A person’s shaliach, whether they be an angel, prophet, king, judge, or ordinary human, is to be considered like the person themself. A duly appointed agent is equipped with the authority of the one they are representing, allowing them to complete tasks or fulfill duties on behalf of their principal. God-appointed agents are particularly endowed. Those whom God elects to be his agents often receive supernatural abilities, such as a prophet with control over nature, or an angel with divine prerogatives like forgiving sins. An agent of God bears the name of HaShem and is thus authorized to speak on his behalf and appropriate divine titles to himself (such as “God” or “Savior”). This framework provides a coherent explanation for passages in which divine actions are attributed both to God and to his appointed representatives, without necessitating ontological identity between them.

Ultimately, every example of the relationship of agency pales in comparison to the one between God and his Son. The unique Son of God is the eschatological shaliach of HaShem, the divine plenipotentiary sent to reveal the one true God to the world through his words and deeds, and the one God has exalted to his right hand, giving all authority in heaven and on earth as his special representative. This reality explains many of the mysteries that have left Christian readers perplexed over the past millennium, such as Jesus’ statement that if you’ve seen him, you’ve seen the Father, or the allocation of divine powers and titles to the man Jesus, which otherwise may seem inappropriate. 

Just like the prophets sent before him, Jesus’ mission was to bring the nation of Israel to repentance as a prophetic agent. Yet he is far more than this. He is also the royal agent who will sit on the throne of David as the everlasting shepherd, the true king of Israel, reigning on behalf of God. Yet even still, he is far more than this. He is the very finite expression of the infinite and transcendent God—the furthest revelation of his divine word and wisdom.

“Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom he also created the worlds. He is the reflection of God’s glory and the exact imprint of God’s very being, and he sustains all things by his powerful word. When he had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high, having become as much superior to angels as the name he has inherited is more excellent than theirs.” (‭‭Hebrews‬ ‭1‬:‭1‬-‭4‬). 

The name that Jesus has inherited is none other than the name of HaShem—the name he came in (Matt‬ ‭21‬:‭9‬; John 5:43), the name above all names (Phil 2:9). However, at this moment, it is crucial not to miss the forest for the trees. The shaliach is most certainly meant to be honored, indeed honored as one honors the one who sent them (John 5:23). However, one must also recognize the distinction between them. A distinction not just numerically, but also in rank. Jesus himself declares that the one who sent him, the Father, is greater than himself (John 14:28). Christ is the head of man, but God is the head of Christ (1 Cor 11:3). This hierarchy must be recognized. One mustn’t honor the sent one more, or instead of the principal. It would be a tragedy for the shaliach to absorb all of the honor that is due to their sender. I urge the reader to heed the warning of T. A. Smail, “To pray to Jesus rather than through him … as the established habit of our prayer, is to betray a doubt about our relationship to the Father.”¹²⁰ When one understands the intricate beauty of this relationship, they then understand the role Christ plays in our spiritual relationship with HaShem. He is the one who reveals God to us as his agent (John 1:18). He is the mediator between us and our Creator (1 Tim 2:5). He is the means by which we draw closest to the Father (John 14:6). He is the one in whom and through whom we love, pray, and worship HaShem. “Such worship is always, should always be offered in the recognition that God is all in all, and that the majesty of the Lord Jesus at the end of the day expresses and affirms the majesty of the one God more clearly than anything else in the world.”¹²¹

Footnotes and References

1.  Special thanks to William Turner, whose contributions, particularly in the form of Scriptural evidence, aided in the writing of this article. 

2. m. Berakoth 5.5; b.Nedarim 72b; b. Kiddushin 41b, 42b, 43a; b. Baba Metzia 96a; b. Hagigah 10b; b. Menachot 93b; b. Nazir 12b; Israel Herbert Levinthal, “The Jewish Law of Agency,” The Jewish Quarterly Review 13.2 (Oct. 1922): 133, notes that during the Mishnaic period, this maxim was a recognized legal term in Jewish law.

3. L. M. Simmons, “The Rabbinical Law of Agency,” The Jewish Quarterly Review 8, no. 4 (1896): 618; Levinthal, “The Jewish Law of Agency,” 157.

4. R. J. Z. Werblowsky and Geoffrey Wigoder, eds., The Encyclopedia of the Jewish Religion (New York: Adama Books, 1986), 15.

5.  y.Chagigah 76d as quoted in Rengstorf, “Apostle,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 1, 417; First Fruits of Zion, Torah Club: Chronicles of the Apostles, Commentary Set + Audio Magazine (Marshfield, MO: First Fruits of Zion, 2016), 4. 

6. t.Kiddushin 4:1-2.

7.  m.Rosh HaShannah 1:3-4.

8. Levinthal, “The Jewish Law of Agency,” 136, 153-156; Dustin Smith, “The Jewish Principle of Agency in the Gospel According to John,” 2024, 4-8. Smith expertly expounds on these six tenets, illustrating their precedent throughout rabbinic literature.

9.  Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann Jakob Stamm, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, rev. by Walter Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm, trans. and ed. M. E. J. Richardson, 5 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000), s.vv. “שָׁלַח” and “שָׁלִיחַ.”

10. Rabbeinu Bahya, Bereshit 1:26:3, 28:12:8; Rabbeinu Bahya, Devarim 1:17:4; b.Berakhot 60b; Dustin R. Smith, A Systematic Theology of the Early Church, ed. J. Jeffery Fletcher and Scott A. Deane (Integrity Syndicate, 2025), 56-60.

11. Gen 3:24; 16:7-14; 18:1-15; 19:1-22; 21:17-19; 22:11-18; 28:12; 31:11-13; 32:1-2; Exod 3:2-6; 14:19; Num 22:22-35; Josh 5:13-15; Judg 2:1-5; 6:11-24; 13:2-23; 2 Sam 24:15-17; 1 Kgs 19:5-7; 22:19-23; 2 Kgs 1:3-4, 15-16; 6:17; 2 Chr 32:21; Isa 6:1-7; Ezek 1; 10; Dan 3:24-28; 6:22; 7:9-10; 8:15-17; 9:21-23; 10:5-21; 12:1; Zech 1-6.

12. Midrash Tanchuma, Mishpatim 18:6.

13. Rambam, Mishneh Torah, Foundations of Torah, 2:7-8.

14. Rashi on Joshua 5:15.

15. Gen 19:13; 24:7, 40; Exod 23:20; Num 20:16; 2 Chr 32:21.

16. E.g. Gen 16:7–13; 19:1, 21; 22:11–18; 31:11-13; Ex 3:2-4; Judg 2:1-5; 6:11–24; 13:3-23; Zech 3:1-6; 12:8.

17. Midrash Tanchuma, Mishpatim 18:6.

18. Genesis 19:1 identifies the two men as angels.

19. Rashi on Genesis 19:1.

20. See my section on “The Servants, the Agents of David” for another example of multiple agents representing a single person.

21. “Rabbi Ḥelbo ben Rabbi Ḥilfi bar Simkai in the name of Rabbi Yehuda bar Rabbi Simon:“ and the Lord rained down…upon Sodom” – this refers to Gavriel. “From the Lord from the heavens” – this is the Holy One blessed be He.” (Bereshit Rabbah 51:2). 

    
    

    There is another opinion on the doubling of the divine name (see Rashi on Genesis 19:24; Bereshit Rabbah 51:2), which appeals to a Hebrew grammatical construction called “the disappearing third person.” Consider Rabbi Yitzhak’s argument: 

    
    

    “Rabbi Yitzḥak said: In the Torah, in the Prophets, and in the Writings, we find that an ordinary person mentions his name twice in one verse. In the Torah: “Lemekh said to his wives: […wives of Lemekh, hear my words…]” (Genesis 4:23). “My wives” is not written here, but rather: “Wives of Lemekh, hear…” (Genesis 4:23). In the Prophets: “The king said to them: Take with you the servants of your lord, mount Solomon my son upon my mule…” (I Kings 1:33). “The king’s son” is not written here, but rather, “Solomon my son.” In the Writings: “[King Aḥashverosh said…] as a document that is written in the name of the king and sealed with the ring of the king may not be revoked” (Esther 8:7–8). And you wonder that the Holy One blessed be He mentions His name twice in one verse?” (Bereshit Rabbah 51:2).

22. Gen 33:10 with Bereshit Rabbah 78:3; Psa 8:4-6 with Heb 2:6-8; Rambam, Mishneh Torah, Foundations of Torah, 2:7, Rambam notes that elohim are a class of angels; Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, s.v. “אֱלֹהִים”.

23. Bruce K. Waltke and Michael Patrick O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), section 7.2; Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1–15, Word Biblical Commentary 1 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1987), 348–50.

24. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, The Ryrie Study Bible (Chicago: Moody Press, 1978), 30; The NIV Study Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1985), 29; Robert V. McCabe, “Who Is the Angel of the Lord in the Old Testament?”; James C. Moyer, “Angel of the Lord,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984).

25. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, ch. 127.

26. Martyr, Dialogue, ch. 127-128.

27. Justin Martyr, First Apology, ch. 13; Martyr, Dialogue, ch. 55-56.

28. See Shmuel Bar-Yosef, “Is Jesus Metatron?” Altarnate Media, https://www.altarnatemedia.com/post/is-jesus-metatron, for a lengthy overview of the nature of Metatron.

29. Waltke and O’Connor, An Introduction, section 7.2.

30. Ex 33:1-5 with Ex 23:23, HaShem says he will not go up with the children himself to the promised land but will rather send the angel of the LORD. If the angel of the LORD was the LORD himself, this would make God’s statement false. Zech 1:12-13, the angel of the LORD asks HaShem a question, and HaShem speaks comforting words to him. The angel of the LORD is presented as lesser than God in terms of knowledge and as a being who desired consolation from him.

31. Wenham, Genesis 1–15, 348–350.

32. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 64-65.

33. James F. McGrath, The Only True God: Early Christian Monotheism in Its Jewish Context (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 14.

34.  Isa 48:16, 61:1; Jer 7:25, 14:14, 23:21, 25:4, 26:5, 26:12, 29:9, 29:19, 29:31, 35:15, 42:21, 43:2; Ezek 2:3, 2:4, 3:5, 3:6, 3:17, 13:6; Amos 7:15; Zech 2:9, 2:11, 4:9, 6:15.

35. Exodus Rabbah 5:14.

36. Exod 7:17–20, 8:5–6, 14:21; Num 16:28–33, 20:10–11; Cf. Bava Metzia 86b.

37. 1 Kgs 17:1, 17:22; 18:36–38; Cf. b.Ta’anit 2a; b.Sanhedrin 113a.

38. 2 Kgs 4:1–7, 4:32–35, 5:10–14, 6:8–12; Cf. b.Ta’anit 2a; b.Sanhedrin 113a.

39. Josh 10:12–14.

40. 2 Kgs 20:9–11; Isa 38:7–8.

41. J. R. Daniel Kirk, A Man Attested by God: The Human Jesus of the Synoptic Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 77-82.

42. Exodus 4:13, 28; 5:22; 33:12.

43. Shemot Rabbah 2:3.

44. Ex 4:16; Ex 7:1; Onkelos Exodus 4:16; Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, s.v. “אֱלֹהִים.”

45. Radak on 2 Kings 2:11; Malbim on 2 Kings 2:12.

46. b.Sanhedrin 98a; b.Bava Metzia 59b, 85b; b.Taanit 22a-23a; b.Berakhot 3a.

47. Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer 29:17-18.

48. Rabbi Naftali Silberberg, “Why Is Elijah the Prophet Invited to the Seder?” Chabad.org, accessed April 14, 2026, https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/504495/jewish/Why-Is-Elijah-the-Prophet-Invited-to-the-Seder.htm.

49. Cf. Exod 5:1; Isa 1:2–3; Jer 2:2; Amos 1:3; Hag 1:5; Jonah 3:4.

50. m.Kiddusin 2:1.

51. Rashi on Genesis 41:40-46.

52. See Smith, A Systematic Theology, 65-66; Kirk, A Man Attested, 120-139; Cf. Exod 28:1; 29:44; Num 18:1–7.

53. Exod 29:38–42; Num 28:1–8.

54. Lev 1-7.

55. Lev 10:11.

56. Lev 16:6, 17, 30, 32-34; 17:11.

57. Num 11:16-18 with Ex 18:1-27.

58. See also Ex 18:1-27; m.Sanhedrin 1-3; Matt 23:1-3.

59. Deut 17:12-13.

60. Jdg 2:16; 6:37.

61. Jdg 3:9; 6:34-36.

62. Ex 21:6; 22:8-9; 1 Sam 2:25; Psa 82:1, 6; 138:1; John 10:34; Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, s.v. “אֱלֹהִים.”

63. I am relying heavily on Smith’s work concerning the kings of Israel as agents of God. See Smith, A Systematic Theology, 66-71. Also see Kirk, A Man Attested, 96-110.

64.  Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, s.v. “אֱלֹהִים.”

65. In modern culture, “worship” is typically understood as something that can only be given to God. However, within Biblical culture, this wasn’t the case. The Hebrew word shachah (HALOT, s.v. “שָׁחָה”), and its Greek equivalent proskeneo (BDAG, s.v. “προσκυνέω”) both simply mean to honor someone in a position above. Many people in Scripture were said to have worshipped humans in greater positions. For example, Abraham worshipped the leaders of other nations (Gen 23:7), Jacob worshipped Esau after reuniting (Gen 33:3), Joseph’s brothers worshipped him (Gen 43:26), Ruth worshipped Boaz (Ruth 2:10), David worshipped Jonathan (1 Sam. 20:41), the people of Israel worshiped King Solomon in tandem with God (1 Chron 29:20), and the synagogue of Satan will worship the church of Philadelphia (Rev 3:9). English translations usually choose to avoid rendering shachah and proskeneo as “worship” when its used of men, despite the fact they render it as such when its used of God (cf. Gen 24:26; Exodus 34:14; Deut 26:10; Isa 66:23).

66. Levinthal, “The Jewish Law of Agency,” 153.

67. Davies, W. D., and Dale C. Allison. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew: Vol. 1, Introduction and Commentary on Matthew I–VII. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988, 200; James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 133; Smith, A Systematic Theology, 293-302; See my article entitled, “What is the Holy Spirit?” https://www.altarnatemedia.com/post/what-is-the-holy-spirit.

68. Num. 11:17-29; Judg. 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 1 Sam. 10:6, 10; 16:13; 1 Chron. 12:18; 2 Chron. 15:1; Mic. 3:8; Luke 1:41-42, 67; 2:25-27.

69. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 301.

70. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 60-62.

71. Lady Wisdom says she “calls out to men” in hopes of their taking heed to her wise sayings. She says she “dwells with prudence,” “loves those who love her,” “walks in the way of righteousness,” “was there when God established the heavens,” “rejoices in the world,” “builds a house,” and “prepares food and wine” for the righteous (Prov 8-9). These are all things which are normally said of humans or selves, yet they are all said of personified wisdom as if she were literally a woman. See Dustin R. Smith, Wisdom Christology in the Gospel of John (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2024), 11-48.

72. Matt 1:20; 2:13, 19-20; 28:5-7; Luke 1:11-20, 26-38; 2:9-12; 24:4-7; John 20:12-13; Acts 1:10-11; 5:19-20; 8:26; 10:3-6, 22; 12:7-8, 11; 27:23-24; Rev 1:1; 5:2; 7:2-3; 8:3-5; 10:1-11; 11:1; 14:6-11; 17:1-7; 19:9-10; 21:9-10; 22:6-9.

73. Moses Maimonides (Rambam), Commentary on the Mishnah: Sanhedrin 10:1, trans. from Hebrew, Sefaria, https://www.sefaria.org.

74. Matt 3:1–3; 11:10; Mark 1:2–4; Luke 1:16–17, 76; 3:2–6; 7:27.

75. Frederick William Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 120-122.

76. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 261-262.

77. Theodore Korteweg, “Origin and Early History of the Apostolic Office,” in The Apostolic Age in Patristic Thought, ed. Anthony Hilhorst (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 6.

78. Matt 10; Mark 6:6-13; Luke 9:1-6.

79. Cf. John 17:18; 20:21.

80. Acts 8:1, 3; 9:1–2; 22:4–5; 26:9–11.

81. Toby Janicki, The Way of Life: The Rediscovered Teachings of the Twelve Jewish Apostles to the Gentiles (Marshfield, MO: First Fruits of Zion, 2017), 396.

82. Janicki, The Way of Life, 400.

83. First Fruits of Zion, Chronicles of the Messiah (Marshfield, MO: First Fruits of Zion, 2014), 1297-99.

84. First Fruits of Zion, Chronicles of the Messiah, 1187-88.

85. First Fruits of Zion, Chronicles of the Messiah, 1285-1292.

86. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 293-302.

87. Smith, A Systematic Theology, 251-257; Smith, “The Jewish Principle of Agency”, 9-11.

88. Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), comment on John 5:30.

89. Matt 10:40; 15:24; 21:37; Mark 9:37; 12:6; Luke 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16; 20:13; John 3:17, 34; 4:34; 5:23, 24, 30, 36, 37; 6:29, 38, 39, 40, 44, 57; 7:16, 18, 28, 29, 33-34; 8:16, 18, 26, 29, 42; 9:4; 10:36; 11:42; 12:44, 45, 49, 50; 13:20; 14:24; 15:21; 16:28; 17:3, 8, 18; Acts 3:26; 7:37; Rom 8:3; Gal 4:4; 1 Tim 1:15; Heb 3:1; 1 John 4:9, 10, 14.

90. John 3:17; 5:36, 38; 6:29, 57; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3, 8, 18, 21, 23, 25; 20:21; “Christianity and Judaism: Partings of the Ways,” in Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments, eds. Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), s.v. “Johannine Christology”; Peder Borgen, "God's Agent in the Fourth Gospel," in Religions in Antiquity: Festschrift E. Goodenough, edited by Jacob Neusner, 137-48 (Leiden: Brill, 1968).

91. Every instance in the Bible where the Genesis creation is explicitly being referenced, it is ascribed to God the Father: Gen 1-2; Isa 44:24; 55:12; Ps 33:6-9; Matt 19:4; Mark 10:6, 13:19; Acts 4:24, 14:15, 17:24; Rom 1:20; Eph 3:9; 1 Tim 4:3-4; Heb 3:4, 11:3; Rev 4:11, 10:6, 14:7.

92. Psa 104:24; Prov 3:19-20; 8:1, 22-30; Jer 10:12; Wis 9:1-2.

93. Sir 24:3.

94. Prov 8:22-23, 24, 30; Sir 24:5-8, 14; Wis 9:9.

95. Prov 8:22-31; Bereshit Rabbah 1:1.

96. Prov 8-9.

97. Leo G. Perdue, Proverbs, Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching (Louisville: John Knox Press, 2000), 229, 280; Amy Plantinga Pauw, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, Belief: A Theological Commentary on the Bible (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015), 32; Ben Witherington III, Jesus the Sage: The Pilgrimage of Wisdom (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994), 34–35; Smith, Wisdom Christology, 19.

98. Crispin H. T. Fletcher-Louis, “The Cosmology of P and Theological Anthropology in the Wisdom of Jesus Ben Sira,” in Of Scribes and Sages: Early Jewish Interpretation and Transmission of Scripture, ed. Craig A. Evans, vol. 1 (London: T&T Clark, 2004), 112; A. Jordan Schmidt, Wisdom, Cosmos, and Cultus in the Book of Sirach, Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Studies, vol. 42 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2019), 439; Walter T. Wilson, The Wisdom of Sirach, Eerdmans Critical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2023), 523; Smith, Wisdom Christology,

99.  Lady Wisdom says she became the Torah: Bar 3:32-4:1; Sir 24:12-13, 23; Bereshit Rabbah 1:1.

100. Smith, Wisdom Christology, 11–48.

101. See Dunn, Christology in the Making, 168–75, 215–29; Smith, Wisdom Christology, 49-80; Anthony F. Buzzard and Charles F. Hunting, The Doctrine of the Trinity: Christianity’s Self-Inflicted Wound (Lanham, MD: International Scholars Publications, 1998), 190–93.

102. Dunn, Christology in the Making, 40.

103. James D. G. Dunn, Did the First Christians Worship Jesus? The New Testament Evidence (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010), 147-151.

104. There are at most eight verses where some theologians believe Jesus is referred to as “god” (theos), being John 1:1, 1:18, 20:28; Rom 9:5; Tit 2:13; 2 Pet 1:1; Heb 1:8-9; and 1 John 5:20. See Murray J. Harris, Jesus as God: The New Testament Use of Theos in Reference to Jesus (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992), 272. However, many of these texts are disputed. See John W. Schoenheit, The REV Bible Commentary (Spirit & Truth Fellowship International, n.d.), https://www.revisedenglishversion.com, on eight disputed texts.

105. Thomas Emlyn, An Humble Inquiry into the Scripture-Account of Jesus Christ, ed. Dale Tuggy and Kegan A. Chandler (Theophilus Press, 2021), 35-39; C. A. McIntosh, ed., One God, Three Persons, Four Views: A Biblical, Theological, and Philosophical Dialogue on the Doctrine of the Trinity (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2024), 93-94; Dunn, Did the First Christians Worship Jesus?, 132-136.

106. Cf. Mic 5:4; Matt 21:9; 23:39; Mark 11:9–10; Luke 13:35; 19:38; John 12:13.

107. Dunn, Did the First Christians Worship Jesus?, 103-112.

108. 2 Sam 7:12-16; Ps 2; 89:3–4, 27; 110:1-4; Isa 11:1-2; Jer 23:5-6; 33:15-17; Ezek 34:23–24; C.f. Matt 1:1.

109. Kirk, A Man Attested, 177-260.

110. Kirk, A Man Attested, 413-488.

111. Cf. Matt 4:23–24; 8:16; 12:15; Mark 1:32–34; 6:53–56; Luke 6:17–19.

112. Matt 14:25; Mark 6:48; John 6:19.

113. Matt 14:13–21; Mark 6:30–44; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:1–14.

114. John 11:43–44.

115. Matt 8:16; Mark 1:25–26; Luke 4:35–36.

116.  Matt 9:2–6; Mark 2:5–10; Luke 5:20–24; 7:48–50.

117. His mission: Luke 10:16; John 5:20; His power: Matt 12:28; Luke 1:32; 4:15; 11:20-22; John 3:2, 35; 5:19, 30; 14:10; Acts 2:22; 10:37-38; Heb 2:4; His authority: Matt 9:8; 28:18; John 5:18, 22-22: Acts 17:21; 1 Cor 1:3; 15:24-28; Rev 2:26-27; His knowledge: John 7:16; 8:28; 16:30; 17:8, 14; Rev 1:1; His kingdom: Heb 1:2; 1 Cor. 15:24-28. See McIntosh, ed., One God, 102.

118. Jesus called a “servant”: Isa 42:1; 49:3, 5–6; 52:13; 53:11; Matt 12:18; 20:28; Mark 10:45; Luke 22:27; John 13:13–16; Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30; Phil 2:7; Emlyn, An Humble Inquiry, 40-50.

119. Sean Finnegan, The Father Is Greater Than I: Exploring Biblical Subordination, Restitutio, accessed April 7, 2026, https://restitutio.org/2021/10/16/the-father-is-greater-than-i-exploring-biblical-subordination/.

120.  T. A. Smail, The Forgotten Father (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1980), 169.

121. Dunn, Did the First Christians Worship Jesus?, 151.